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Abstract
BACKGROUND Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is more benign in children compared with adults for unknown reasons. This contrasts with other respiratory viruses where disease manifestations are often more severe in children. We hypothesize that a more robust early innate immune response to SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) protects against severe disease.METHODS Clinical outcomes, SARS-CoV-2 viral copies, and cellular gene expression were compared in nasopharyngeal swabs obtained at the time of presentation to the emergency department from 12 children and 27 adults using bulk RNA sequencing and quantitative reverse-transcription PCR. Total protein, cytokines, and anti–SARS-CoV-2 IgG and IgA were quantified in nasal fluid.RESULTS SARS-CoV-2 copies, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, and TMPRSS2 gene expression were similar in children and adults, but children displayed higher expression of genes associated with IFN signaling, NLRP3 inflammasome, and other innate pathways. Higher levels of IFN-α2, IFN-γ, IP-10, IL-8, and IL-1β protein were detected in nasal fluid in children versus adults. Children also expressed higher levels of genes associated with immune cells, whereas expression of those associated with epithelial cells did not differ in children versus adults. Anti–SARS-CoV-2 IgA and IgG were detected at similar levels in nasal fluid from both groups. None of the children required supplemental oxygen, whereas 7 adults did (P = 0.03); 4 adults died.CONCLUSION These findings provide direct evidence of a more vigorous early mucosal immune response in children compared with adults and suggest that this contributes to favorable clinical outcomes.FUNDING NIH grants R01 AI134367, UL1 TR002556, T32 AI007501, T32GM007288, P30 AI124414; an Albert Einstein College of Medicine Dean’s COVID-19 Pilot Research Award; and the Eric J. Heyer, MD, PhD Translational Research Pilot Project Award.
Authors
Carl A. Pierce, Sharlene Sy, Benjamin Galen, Doctor Y. Goldstein, Erika Orner, Marla J. Keller, Kevan C. Herold, Betsy C. Herold
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G Malcangi, A Inchingolo, A Inchingolo, F Piras, V Settanni, G Garofoli, G Palmieri, S Ceci, A Patano, A Mancini, L Vimercati, D Nemore, A Scardapane, B Rapone, A Semjonova, M DOria, L Macchia, I Bordea, G Migliore, A Scarano, F Lorusso, G Tartaglia, D Giovanniello, L Nucci, N Maggialetti, A Parisi, M Domenico, N Brienza, S Tafuri, P Stefanizzi, L Curatoli, A Corriero, M Contaldo, F Inchingolo, G Dipalma |
Children | 2022 |
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Unvaccinated Children Are an Important Link in the Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Delta Variant (B1.617.2): Comparative Clinical Evidence From a Recent Community Surge
H Li, H Lin, X Chen, H Li, H Li, S Lin, L Huang, G Chen, G Zheng, S Wang, X Hu, H Huang, H Tu, X Li, Y Ji, W Zhong, Q Li, J Fang, Q Lin, R Yu, B Xie |
Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology | 2022 |
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Role of genetic variants and host polymorphisms on COVID-19: From viral entrance mechanisms to immunological reactions.
Adli A, Rahimi M, Khodaie R, Hashemzaei N, Hosseini SM |
Journal of Medical Virology | 2022 |
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The risk of COVID-19 death is much greater and age dependent with type I IFN autoantibodies
Manry J, Bastard P, Gervais A, Le Voyer T, Rosain J, Philippot Q, Michailidis E, Hoffmann HH, Eto S, Garcia-Prat M, Bizien L, Parra-Martínez A, Yang R, Haljasmägi L, Migaud M, Särekannu K, Maslovskaja J, de Prost N, Tandjaoui-Lambiotte Y, Luyt CE, Amador-Borrero B, Gaudet A, Poissy J, Morel P, Richard P, Cognasse F, Troya J, Trouillet-Assant S, Belot A, Saker K, Garçon P, Rivière JG, Lagier JC, Gentile S, Rosen LB, Shaw E, Morio T, Tanaka J, Dalmau D, Tharaux PL, Sene D, Stepanian A, Mégarbane B, Triantafyllia V, Fekkar A, Heath JR, Franco JL, Anaya JM, Solé-Violán J, Imberti L, Biondi A, Bonfanti P, Castagnoli R, Delmonte OM, Zhang Y, Snow AL, Holland SM, Biggs CM, Moncada-Vélez M, Arias AA, Lorenzo L, Boucherit S, Anglicheau D, Planas AM, Haerynck F, Duvlis S, Ozcelik T, Keles S, Bousfiha AA, El Bakkouri J, Ramirez-Santana C, Paul S, Pan-Hammarström Q, Hammarström L, Dupont A, Kurolap A, Metz CN, Aiuti A, Casari G, Lampasona V, Ciceri F, Barreiros LA, Dominguez-Garrido E, Vidigal M, Zatz M, van de Beek D, Sahanic S, Tancevski I, Stepanovskyy Y, Boyarchuk O, Nukui Y, Tsumura M, Vidaur L, Tangye SG, Burrel S, Duffy D, Quintana-Murci L, Klocperk A, Kann NY, Shcherbina A, Lau YL, Leung D, Coulongeat M, Marlet J, Koning R, Reyes LF, Chauvineau-Grenier A, Venet F, Monneret G, Nussenzweig MC, Arrestier R, Boudhabhay I, Baris-Feldman H, Hagin D, Wauters J, Meyts I, Dyer AH, Kennelly SP, Bourke NM, Halwani R, Sharif-Askari FS, Dorgham K, Sallette J, Sedkaoui SM, AlKhater S, Rigo-Bonnin R, Morandeira F, Roussel L, Vinh DC, Erikstrup C, Condino-Neto A, Prando C, Bondarenko A, Spaan AN, Gilardin L, Fellay J, Lyonnet S, Bilguvar K, Lifton RP, Mane S, Anderson MS, Boisson B, Béziat V, Zhang SY, Andreakos E, Hermine O, Pujol A, Peterson P, Mogensen TH, Rowen L, Mond J, Debette S, de Lamballerie X, Burdet C, Bouadma L, Zins M, Soler-Palacin P, Colobran R, Gorochov G, Solanich X, Susen S, Martinez-Picado J, Raoult D, Vasse M, Gregersen PK, Piemonti L, Rodríguez-Gallego C, Notarangelo LD, Su HC, Kisand K, Okada S, Puel A, Jouanguy E, Rice CM, Tiberghien P, Zhang Q, Casanova JL, Abel L, Cobat A |
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | 2022 |
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The role of IL-1 family of cytokines and receptors in pathogenesis of COVID-19.
Makaremi S, Asgarzadeh A, Kianfar H, Mohammadnia A, Asghariazar V, Safarzadeh E |
Inflammation research : official journal of the European Histamine Research Society ... [et al.] | 2022 |
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Routine SARS‐CoV‐2 vaccination for all children
De Paris K, Permar SR |
Immunological Reviews | 2022 |
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A Case Study to Dissect Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in a Neonate Nonhuman Primate Model
Fovet CM, Pimienta C, Galhaut M, Relouzat F, Nunez N, Cavarelli M, Sconosciuti Q, Dhooge N, Marzinotto I, Lampasona V, Tolazzi M, Scarlatti G, Ho Tsong Fang R, Naninck T, Dereuddre-Bosquet N, Van Wassenhove J, Gallouët AS, Maisonnasse P, Le Grand R, Menu E, Seddiki N |
Frontiers in immunology | 2022 |
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Extracellular ATP and Imbalance of CD4+ T Cell Compartment in Pediatric COVID-19
Russo C, Raiden S, Algieri S, De Carli N, Davenport C, Sarli M, Bruera MJ, Seery V, Sananez I, Simaz N, Bayle C, Nivela V, Ferrero F, Geffner J, Arruvito L |
Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology | 2022 |
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Virus Infection and Systemic Inflammation: Lessons Learnt from COVID-19 and Beyond
Faist A, Janowski J, Kumar S, Hinse S, Çalışkan DM, Lange J, Ludwig S, Brunotte L |
Cells | 2022 |
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Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses in the Upper Respiratory Tract and the Infectivity of SARS-CoV-2
Ramasamy R |
Viruses | 2022 |
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Recessive inborn errors of type I IFN immunity in children with COVID-19 pneumonia
Zhang Q, Matuozzo D, Le Pen J, Lee D, Moens L, Asano T, Bohlen J, Liu Z, Moncada-Velez M, Kendir-Demirkol Y, Jing H, Bizien L, Marchal A, Abolhassani H, Delafontaine S, Bucciol G, Bayhan GI, Keles S, Kiykim A, Hancerli S, Haerynck F, Florkin B, Hatipoglu N, Ozcelik T, Morelle G, Zatz M, Ng LF, Lye DC, Young BE, Leo YS, Dalgard CL, Lifton RP, Renia L, Meyts I, Jouanguy E, Hammarström L, Pan-Hammarström Q, Boisson B, Bastard P, Su HC, Boisson-Dupuis S, Abel L, Rice CM, Zhang SY, Cobat A, Casanova JL |
Journal of Experimental Medicine | 2022 |
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Understanding Kids and COVID.
Peeples L |
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | 2022 |
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Upper airway gene expression shows a more robust adaptive immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in children.
Mick E, Tsitsiklis A, Spottiswoode N, Caldera S, Serpa PH, Detweiler AM, Neff N, Pisco AO, Li LM, Retallack H, Ratnasiri K, Williamson KM, Soesanto V, Simões EAF, Smith C, Abuogi L, Kistler A, Wagner BD, DeRisi JL, Ambroggio L, Mourani PM, Langelier CR |
Nature Communications | 2022 |
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Distinct airway epithelial immune responses after infection with SARS-CoV-2 compared to H1N1.
Stölting H, Baillon L, Frise R, Bonner K, Hewitt RJ, Molyneaux PL, Gore ML, Barclay WS, Saglani S, Lloyd CM |
Mucosal Immunology | 2022 |
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Comparison by Age of the Local Interferon Response to SARS-CoV-2 Suggests a Role for IFN-ε and -ω
Pierangeli A, Gentile M, Oliveto G, Frasca F, Sorrentino L, Matera L, Nenna R, Viscido A, Fracella M, Petrarca L, D\u2019Ettorre G, Ceccarelli G, Midulla F, Antonelli G, Scagnolari C |
Frontiers in immunology | 2022 |
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LF‐EMF Compound Block Type Signal Activates Human Neutrophilic Granulocytes In Vivo
Cuppen JJ, Gradinaru C, Raap \u2010 van Sleuwen BE, de Wit AC, van der Vegt TA, Savelkoul HF |
Bioelectromagnetics | 2022 |
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Ancestral SARS-CoV-2, but not Omicron, replicates less efficiently in primary pediatric nasal epithelial cells
Zhu Y, Chew KY, Wu M, Karawita AC, McCallum G, Steele LE, Yamamoto A, Labzin LI, Yarlagadda T, Khromykh AA, Wang X, Sng JD, Stocks CJ, Xia Y, Kollmann TR, Martino D, Joensuu M, Meunier FA, Balistreri G, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Bowen AC, Kicic A, Sly PD, Spann KM, Short KR |
PLoS Biology | 2022 |
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SARS-CoV-2 infection in children and implications for vaccination
Nathanielsz J, Toh ZQ, Do LA, Mulholland K, Licciardi PV |
Pediatric Research | 2022 |
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Antibody response against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern in children infected with pre-Omicron variants: An observational cohort study
Seery V, Raiden S, Russo C, Borda M, Herrera L, Uranga M, Varese A, Marcó del Pont M, Chirino C, Erramuspe C, Álvarez LS, Lenoir M, Morales LD, Davenport C, Alarcón Flores A, Huespe Auchter S, Ruiz Y, Monsalvo L, Sastoque L, Gavazzi M, Mazzitelli I, Di Diego F, Longueira Y, Mazzitelli B, Sananez I, De Carli N, Biglione MM, Gómez Penedo JM, Ceballos A, Laufer N, Ferrero F, Geffner J, Arruvito L |
EBioMedicine | 2022 |
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COVID-19 in children: epidemic issues and candidate vaccines.
Zhang P, Wei M, Jing P, Li Z, Li J, Zhu F |
Chinese Medical Journal | 2022 |
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Genetic and immunologic evaluation of children with inborn errors of immunity and severe or critical COVID-19
Abolhassani H, Delavari S, Landegren N, Shokri S, Bastard P, Du L, Zuo F, Hajebi R, Abolnezhadian F, Iranparast S, Modaresi M, Vosughimotlagh A, Salami F, Aranda-Guillén M, Cobat A, Marcotte H, Zhang SY, Zhang Q, Rezaei N, Casanova JL, Kämpe O, Hammarström L, Pan-Hammarström Q |
Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology | 2022 |
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Pyroptosis and respiratory diseases: A review of current knowledge
Sun J, Li Y |
Frontiers in immunology | 2022 |
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High Prevalence of Undocumented SARS-CoV-2 Infections in the Pediatric Population of the Tyrolean District of Schwaz.
Harthaller T, Borena W, Bante D, Schäfer H, Strallhofer O, Zöggeler T, Hochmuth E, Hoch L, Rössler A, von Laer D, Kimpel J, Falkensammer B |
Viruses | 2022 |
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Development of Single-Cell Transcriptomics and Its Application in COVID-19.
Wang C, Huyan T, Zhou X, Zhang X, Duan S, Gao S, Jiang S, Li Q |
Viruses | 2022 |
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Airways tissue expression of type I interferons and their stimulated genes is higher in children than adults
Saheb Sharif-Askari N, Saheb Sharif-Askari F, Hafezi S, Kalaji Z, Temsah M, Almuhsen S, Alsafar HS, Hamid Q, Halwani R |
Heliyon | 2022 |
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Adaptive Immunity to Viruses: What Did We Learn from SARS-CoV-2 Infection?
Vályi-Nagy I, Uher F, Rákóczi É, Szekanecz Z |
International journal of molecular sciences | 2022 |
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Antigen-Specific T Cells and SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Current Approaches and Future Possibilities
Nova Z, Zemanek T, Botek N |
International journal of molecular sciences | 2022 |
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Infant rhesus macaques immunized against SARS-CoV-2 are protected against heterologous virus challenge one year later.
Milligan EC, Olstad K, Williams CA, Mallory M, Cano P, Cross KA, Munt JE, Garrido C, Lindesmith L, Watanabe J, Usachenko JL, Hopkins L, Immareddy R, Lakshmanappa YS, Elizaldi SR, Roh JW, Sammak RL, Pollard RE, Yee JL, Herbek S, Scobey T, Miehlke D, Fouda G, Ferrari G, Gao H, Shen X, Kozlowski PA, Montefiori D, Hudgens MG, Edwards DK, Carfi A, Corbett KS, Graham BS, Fox CB, Tomai M, Iyer SS, Baric R, Reader R, Dittmer DP, Van Rompay KKA, Permar SR, De Paris K |
Science Translational Medicine | 2022 |
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COVID-19 Epidemiology, Immunity, and Vaccine Development in Children: A Review.
Fergie J, Moran MM, Cane A, Pather S, Türeci Ӧ, Srivastava A |
Human vaccines | 2022 |
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Analysis of differential gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the nasopharyngeal milieu of mild & severe COVID-19 cases.
Ghulam U, Nazim F, Farooqui N, Rizwan-Ul-Hasan S, Anwar MF, Ahmed K, Jamal A, Kayani HA, Mughal N, Hussain A, Sarria-Santamera A, Abidi SH |
PloS one | 2022 |
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COVID-19 and children.
Pierce CA, Herold KC, Herold BC, Chou J, Randolph A, Kane B, McFarland S, Gurdasani D, Pagel C, Hotez P, Cobey S, Hensley SE |
Science (New York, N.Y.) | 2022 |
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Immune cell residency in the nasal mucosa may partially explain respiratory disease severity across the age range
K Winkley, D Banerjee, T Bradley, B Koseva, WA Cheung, R Selvarangan, T Pastinen, E Grundberg |
Scientific Reports | 2021 |
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Age-related Differences in the Nasal Mucosal Immune Response to SARS-CoV-2
CM Koch, AD Prigge, KR Anekalla, A Shukla, HC Umehara, L Setar, J Chavez, H Abdala-Valencia, Y Politanska, NS Markov, GR Hahn, T Heald-Sargent, LN Sanchez-Pinto, WJ Muller, BD Singer, AV Misharin, KM Ridge, BM Coates |
American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology | 2021 |
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COVID-19 Infection in Children, Infants and Pregnant Subjects: An Overview of Recent Insights and Therapies
G Malcangi, AD Inchingolo, AM Inchingolo, L Santacroce, G Marinelli, A Mancini, L Vimercati, ME Maggiore, MT DOria, D Hazballa, IR Bordea, E Xhajanka, A Scarano, M Farronato, GM Tartaglia, D Giovanniello, L Nucci, R Serpico, G Sammartino, L Capozzi, A Parisi, MD Domenico, F Lorusso, M Contaldo, F Inchingolo, G Dipalma |
Microorganisms | 2021 |
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Early nasal type I IFN immunity against SARS-CoV-2 is compromised in patients with autoantibodies against type I IFNs
J Lopez, M Mommert, W Mouton, A Pizzorno, K Brengel-Pesce, M Mezidi, M Villard, B Lina, JC Richard, JB Fassier, V Cheynet, B Padey, V Duliere, T Julien, S Paul, P Bastard, A Belot, A Bal, JL Casanova, M Rosa-Calatrava, F Morfin, T Walzer, S Trouillet-Assant |
Journal of Experimental Medicine | 2021 |
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A poor and delayed anti-SARS-CoV2 IgG response is associated to severe COVID-19 in children
I Sananez, SC Raiden, SC Algieri, M Uranga, NA Grisolía, D Filippo, ND Carli, SD Lalla, H Cairoli, MJ Chiolo, CN Meregalli, E Cohen, G Mosquera, MM del Pont, LI Giménez, G Gregorio, M Sarli, AL Alcalde, C Davenport, MJ Bruera, N Simaz, MF Pérez, V Nivela, C Bayle, L Alvarez, M Revetria, P Tuccillo, MT Agosta, H Pérez, SV Nova, P Suárez, EM Takata, M García, J Lattner, MJ Rolón, P Coll, M Salvatori, C Piccardo, C Russo, A Varese, V Seery, MP Holgado, ML Polo, A Ceballos, M Nuñez, JM Penedo, F Ferrero, J Geffner, L Arruvito |
EBioMedicine | 2021 |
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Application of omics technology to combat the COVID‐19 pandemic
J Yang, Y Yan, W Zhong |
2021 | |
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Circulating Type I Interferon Levels and COVID-19 Severity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
RP da Silva, JI Gonçalves, RF Zanin, FB Schuch, AP de Souza |
Frontiers in immunology | 2021 |
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Current Insights Into the Pathophysiology of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children
LA Vella, AH Rowley |
Current Pediatrics Reports | 2021 |
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Pediatric COVID-19: Immunopathogenesis, Transmission and Prevention
G Blanchard-Rohner, A Didierlaurent, A Tilmanne, P Smeesters, A Marchant |
Human vaccines | 2021 |
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The Relationship between COVID-19 and Innate Immunity in Children: A Review
P Valentini, G Sodero, D Buonsenso |
Children | 2021 |
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Nature of Acquired Immune Responses, Epitope Specificity and Resultant Protection from SARS-CoV-2
RM Gorczynski, RA Lindley, EJ Steele, NC Wickramasinghe |
Journal of Personalized Medicine | 2021 |
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Robust innate responses to SARS-CoV-2 in children resolve faster than in adults without compromising adaptive immunity
M Vono, A Huttner, S Lemeille, P Martinez-Murillo, B Meyer, S Baggio, S Sharma, A Thiriard, A Marchant, GJ Godeke, C Reusken, C Alvarez, F Perez-Rodriguez, I Eckerle, L Kaiser, N Loevy, CS Eberhardt, G Blanchard-Rohner, CA Siegrist, AM Didierlaurent |
Cell Reports | 2021 |
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Why Does the Severity of COVID-19 Differ With Age?: Understanding the Mechanisms Underlying the Age Gradient in Outcome Following SARS-CoV-2 Infection
P Zimmermann, N Curtis |
The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal | 2021 |
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Immunity to SARS‐CoV‐2 induced by infection or vaccination
XC Dopico, S Ols, K Loré, GB Hedestam |
Journal of Internal Medicine | 2021 |
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Delayed induction of type I and III interferons mediates nasal epithelial cell permissiveness to SARS-CoV-2
CF Hatton, RA Botting, ME Dueñas, IJ Haq, B Verdon, BJ Thompson, JS Spegarova, F Gothe, E Stephenson, AI Gardner, S Murphy, J Scott, JP Garnett, S Carrie, J Powell, CM Khan, L Huang, R Hussain, J Coxhead, T Davey, AJ Simpson, M Haniffa, S Hambleton, M Brodlie, C Ward, M Trost, G Reynolds, CJ Duncan |
Nature Communications | 2021 |
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Systemic and mucosal immune profiling in asymptomatic and symptomatic SARS-CoV-2–infected individuals reveal unlinked immune signatures
S Ravichandran, G Grubbs, J Tang, Y Lee, C Huang, H Golding, S Khurana |
Science Advances | 2021 |
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A Review on Expression, Pathological Roles, and Inhibition of TMPRSS2, the Serine Protease Responsible for SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Activation
J Sarker, P Das, S Sarker, AK Roy, AZ Momen, SY Seong |
Scientifica | 2021 |
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COVID‐19 vaccination in pediatric cancer patients: A high priority
Y Charla, M Kalra, N Chopra, S Choudhury |
Pediatric Blood & Cancer | 2021 |
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Upper airway gene expression reveals a more robust innate and adaptive immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in children compared with older adults
Eran Mick, Alexandra Tsitsiklis, Natasha Spottiswoode, Saharai Caldera, Paula Serpa, Angela Detweiler, Norma Neff, Angela Oliveira Pisco, Lucy Li, Hanna Retallack, Kalani Ratnasiri, Kayla Williamson, Victoria Soesanto, Eric Simões, A Kistler, Brandie Wagner, Joseph DeRisi, Lilliam Ambroggio, Peter Mourani, Charles Langelier |
Research square | 2021 |
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Medium‐term serostatus in Spanish case series recovered from SARS‐CoV‐2 infection
O MorenoPérez, JM Ramos, A Gimeno, JC Rodríguez, M Andres, JM LeonRamirez, B Valero, P Llorens, V Boix, J Gil, E Merino |
Journal of Medical Virology | 2021 |
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Developmental Aspects of SARS-CoV-2, Potential Role of Exosomes and Their Impact on the Human Transcriptome
N Dogra, C Ledesma-Feliciano, R Sen |
Journal of Developmental Biology | 2021 |
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Considerations for the Safe Operation of Schools During the Coronavirus Pandemic
R Lordan, S Prior, E Hennessy, A Naik, S Ghosh, GK Paschos, C Skarke, K Barekat, T Hollingsworth, S Juska, LL Mazaleuskaya, S Teegarden, AL Glascock, S Anderson, H Meng, SY Tang, A Weljie, L Bottalico, E Ricciotti, P Cherfane, A Mrcela, G Grant, K Poole, N Mayer, M Waring, L Adang, J Becker, S Fries, GA FitzGerald, T Grosser |
Frontiers in public health | 2021 |
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Estimating infectiousness throughout SARS-CoV-2 infection course.
Jones TC, Biele G, Mühlemann B, Veith T, Schneider J, Beheim-Schwarzbach J, Bleicker T, Tesch J, Schmidt ML, Sander LE, Kurth F, Menzel P, Schwarzer R, Zuchowski M, Hofmann J, Krumbholz A, Stein A, Edelmann A, Corman VM, Drosten C |
Science (New York, N.Y.) | 2021 |
