The habenula (Hb) is a central structure connecting forebrain to midbrain regions. This
microstructure regulates monoaminergic systems, notably dopamine and serotonin, and
integrates cognitive with emotional and sensory processing. Early preclinical data have
described Hb as a brain nucleus activated in anticipation of aversive outcomes. Evidence
has now accumulated to show that the Hb encodes both rewarding and aversive aspects of
external stimuli, thus driving motivated behaviors and decision making. Human Hb research …