Vascularized composite allograft (VCA) transplantation (also referred to as composite tissue
allotransplantation) has demonstrated clinical success in cases of hand, arm and face
transplantation despite prior belief that skin provides an insurmountable barrier to allograft
rejection. These overall good outcomes are facilitated by substantial immunosuppressive
requirements in otherwise healthy patients, yet still demonstrate frequent rejection episodes.
We developed a nonhuman primate model of facial segment allotransplantation to elucidate …